North Macedonia, the Philippines, Ireland, Thailand, and the USA may differ significantly in geography, culture, and regulatory context, but they share a common thread in terms of fire safety: each has experienced a major fatal nightclub fire.

A study of global nightclub fire events that occurred from 1940 to the present [1] shows that several other countries around the world have also faced deadly nightclub fires. The map in Figure 1 represents a selection of nightclub fires in which 10 or more people have died. More recently, the Rong Beer Na Ladprao pub in Bangkok joins the list. As the list continues to grow, it raises an important question: Have we ever truly learned the lessons from past nightclub fire events?

In this issue of Burning Matters, we explore the history of nightclub fires, explain how Fire Dynamics and Means of Escape during Fire have become the most important elements in systemic failure, and recommend potential measures to mitigate such risks. Considering the recent fire in Bangkok, it is timely to revisit past tragedies not only to understand what went wrong also to ensure their lessons continue to shape safety practices for the future.

Pyrotechnics are widely used across the entertainment industry, from stadium concerts to theme park shows. They often form part of a performance’s visual effects, with fireworks and stage pyrotechnics coordinated with lighting, music, and other production elements. In well-managed venues, these effects not only enhance the performances but also leave a lasting memory for most viewers. In these scenarios, pyrotechnics and fireworks are deployed at safe distances from performers, audiences, and combustible materials, with carefully planned exclusion zones and other safety measures in place.

This highlights an important contrast: while pyrotechnics appear to be common in large, well-controlled venues or concert events, nightclub environments seem to have a poor track record when it comes to pyrotechnics. How is it that similar ignition sources can lead to vastly different outcomes, and what makes nightclubs particularly high-risk settings for fatal fires?

The fire triangle provides a simple framework for understanding how a fire starts and develops. It consists of three essential elements: oxygen, an ignition source, and fuel. The rapid consequences of these elements coming together were evident during The Station nightclub fire in Rhode Island in 2003. One concert attendee recalled: “Flames quickly rose overhead, and it was above me. Suddenly, everything was on fire. I could see an orange glow behind thick black smoke, but not much else.” [2] The account illustrates how quickly conditions can deteriorate when an ignition source, such as pyrotechnics, interacts with combustible interior linings in an oxygen-rich environment.

A closer inspection of nightclub fires reveals that Pyrotechnics (or something in a similar form, e.g. sparklers or flares) are the chief ignition source. An examination of the nightclub fires that occurred over the past decade (see Table 1) supports this finding.

Table 1: Nightclub fires in the past decade and ignition sources [1]

In crowded, enclosed environments rich with combustible materials such as acoustic foam and paper decorations in nightclubs, pyrotechnics continue to be utilised in close quarters in night clubs around the world. When adequate fire safety measures are not provided, a small ignition source can ignite nearby materials and allow a fire to develop rapidly, particularly within confined spaces where smoke and heat can accumulate quickly.

The second element we examine is the fuel source, particularly combustible interior materials that have contributed to rapid fire growth and significant smoke production in several nightclub incidents. Across the cases reviewed, polyurethane acoustic foam and polyurethane ceiling linings appear as the chief fuel. These materials, often selected for their sound-absorbing qualities, low cost, or ease of installation, are rarely chosen with fire performance as a primary consideration. With today's advances in material innovation, there is little justification for compromising fire safety. The question is no longer whether safer alternatives exist, but whether we are choosing to use them. Building designers have an opportunity — and a responsibility— to design with fire-resistant foams, boards, and other interior finishes without sacrificing performance.

Table 2: Deadliest nightclub fires in history [4] and the combustible materials found in the linings

The list in Table 2 represents some of the worst cases of nightclub fires according to NFPA [4] and in addition, the recent incident in Thailand. The Rong Beer Na Ladprao pub fire incident in Bangkok shows the reality of the continued use of combustible linings even in the present day.

Several industry guidelines can be referenced for design requirements to maintain safety when using pyrotechnics. NFPA 1126 [11] provides requirements for the use of pyrotechnics before a proximate audience. It gives reference to the use of NFPA 101 for facilities in or at which pyrotechnics are to be used. According to NFPA 101 Section 13.7.3 [12], no open flame devices or pyrotechnic devices shall be used in any assembly occupancy, unless otherwise permitted by one of the following:

The above guideline from industry standards has repeatedly emphasised the prevention of ignition of any combustible materials. Does this imply that compliance should default to the installation of sprinklers or the use of non-combustible alternatives?

 “We can’t get the door open.” (excerpt from the Stardust Nightclub fire) [14]

In almost every major nightclub fire, evacuation failure is pinpointed as a critical factor that prevented safe egress. In the first half, we tackle how Fire Dynamics played a role in fire spread. In this second half, we examine the prevalence of egress elements that often make evacuation impossible: Inadequate signage, Lack of crowd management, and Single / Inadequate exits.

A review of the incident timelines reveals a recurring pattern across several nightclub fires. In some cases, the first visible signs of fire were initially mistaken for part of the venue’s lighting or visual effects. This delayed recognition of the developing fire and, consequently, the start of evacuation, leaving many occupants with less time to reach safety.

Beyond the initial ignition, our review also identified several factors that contributed to the rapid deterioration of conditions within these venues. Drawn from published incident reports, these recurring features highlight common vulnerabilities that have influenced the severity and consequences of nightclub fires.

While pyrotechnics can be used safely in modern venues and concerts with careful planning, distance, and fire control measures, nightclub environments continue to show how small oversights can escalate into catastrophic events.

As incidents continue to occur even in the present, it is evident that lessons learned must go beyond anecdote. Responsibility rests with venue operators, regulators, designers, and attendees alike to ensure that the latest night club fire incident would not be a prequel to a future one. Like what is happening now in most cinemas and concerts, events in night clubs should start with a fire safety briefing. While it is ultimately up to people to party responsibly, this newsletter strongly emphasizes that, based on reports of nightclub and disco fires, many occupants responded rationally and in fact, helped save others from the fire. This highlights that the fatalities were not products of panic among victims but of systemic failure.

As fatal nightclub fires continue to occur, it is evident that lessons learned must go beyond anecdotes. Venue operators, regulators, designers, event organisers, and occupants all have roles in maintaining safe environments and ensuring that known failures are not repeated.

Nightclubs could also benefit from clearer pre-event fire safety information, similar to the safety messaging increasingly provided at cinemas, concerts, and other large events. This may include identifying available exits and providing clear instructions on what to do in an emergency.

Importantly, incident reports do not necessarily support the common assumption that occupant panic is the primary cause of fatalities. In several cases, occupants responded rationally to the conditions they encountered, with some assisting others during evacuation. The scale of loss should therefore not be attributed simply to occupant behaviour. Instead, these incidents demonstrate the consequences of multiple failures— inadequate means of escape, delayed recognition of fire, combustible materials, overcrowding, and deficiencies in fire safety management.

The challenge now is not identifying what went wrong, but rather examining current design and operational practices to determine whether effective fire measures have been incorporated. This means looking beyond minimum compliance and considering how nightclub environments function in practice: how occupants recognise an emergency, how quickly they can identify and reach alternative exits, how interior materials influence fire and smoke development, and how fire safety systems perform under crowded conditions. As entertainment spaces continue to evolve, so too should the measures used to manage their fire risks.

Post-script: Professor Ed Galea has been the leading researcher on nightclub fires, spanning over a decade of study of 38 nightclub fires. In his LinkedIn post, he gives two sound pieces of advice when dealing with occupied/assembly places:

"Chance favours the prepared mind. You improve your chances by being prepared. Always look for the means of escape." – Galea

Grunde

I would love to hear your thoughts! Reach out through the Burning Matters feedback form.

About the Guest Writer

Gizelle Jamero is a Fire Safety Engineer in Arup and an alumna of the International Master of Science in Fire Safety Engineering. As a project engineer, she evaluates structures in the built environment for compliance with building regulations, conducts risk assessments, and develops fire strategies accordingly.

As a former intern for the Society of Fire Protection Engineers and the FRISSBE project, Gizelle remains deeply committed to fire education, code development, and global fire safety regulatory capacity building.

References:

[1] “Many of history’s deadliest building fires have been in nightclubs. Here’s why they’re so dangerous,” The Conversation. Available: https://theconversation.com/many-of-historys-deadliest-building-fires-have-been-in-nightclubs-heres-why-theyre-so-dangerous-252372 (accessed Feb 2026).

[2] T. Symonds, “A deadly fire swept through a nightclub in just 90 seconds. I got out”, BBC News. Jan. 18, 2026. Available: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czejykzg77po (accessed Feb 2026).

[3] A. France-Presse, “Death toll from Crans-Montana bar fire rises to 41,” The Guardian, Feb. 1, 2026. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/feb/01/crans-montana-bar-fire-switzerland-death-toll (accessed Feb 2026).

[4] Deadly North Macedonia nightclub fire highlights need for pyrotechnic safety,” National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Mar. 19, 2025. Available: https://www.nfpa.org/news-blogs-and-articles/blogs/2025/03/19/deadly-north-macedonia-nightclub-fire-highlights-need-for-pyrotechnic-safety (accessed Feb 2026).

[5] “Major American Fires: Cocoanut Grove Fire,” Illinois Fire Service Institute Library, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Available: https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=348303&p=2346975 (accessed Feb 2026).

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[7] D. A. Purser, “The Kiss Nightclub Fire,” National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Available: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3741004/ (accessed Feb 2026).

[8] “Major American Fires: Rhythm Club Fire,” Illinois Fire Service Institute Library, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Available: https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=348303&p=2346976 (accessed Feb 2026).

[9] “Argentinians protest after fatal fire,” Al Jazeera, Jan. 4, 2005. Available: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/1/4/argentinians-protest-after-fatal-fire (accessed Feb 2026).

[10] BBC News, “Thailand PM visits aftermath of deadly Bangkok bar fire,” BBC News, Jul. 14, 2026. Available: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd6e68n3jz5o (accessed Jul. 2026).

[11] National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 1126, Standard for the Use of Pyrotechnics Before a Proximate Audience, 2026 ed., Quincy, MA, USA: National Fire Protection Association, 2025.

[12] National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, 2024 ed., Quincy, MA, USA: National Fire Protection Association

[13] National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 160, Standard for the Use of Flame Effects Before an Audience, 2026 ed., Quincy, MA, USA: National Fire Protection Association

[14] C. Fegan, “In their own words: Six powerful quotes from the Stardust survivors,” Irish Independent. 18 Apr. 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/in-their-own-words-six-powerful-quotes-from-the-stardust-survivors/a1797421940.html. (accessed Feb 2026)

[15] Philippines' Most Shocking Stories | EP 2: The Ozone Night Club Tragedy. ABS CBN News. YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VaERkrPPRNA&t=404s